Chola: Art and Architecture

Chola: Art and Architecture

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The Chola dynasty’s architectural, sculptural, and artistic achievements — spanning grand temple complexes such as the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, the twin temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and the Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram — represent one of the high points of South Indian art. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, Chola art and architecture is a recurring and rich theme, covering the evolution of Dravidian temple architecture from modest early shrines to the towering vimanas of the imperial period, along with the Cholas’ renowned bronze sculpture, portraiture, painting, music, dance, and drama. This article traces the development of Chola temple architecture and its key monuments, before examining sculpture, portraiture, painting, and the performing arts of music, dance, and drama under the Cholas.

Overview of Chola Temple Architecture

• After the Pallavas, the Chola dynasty became the leading power of Southern India, emerging victorious among rival kingdoms; the capital of the Chola dynasty was the city of Thanjavur.
  • They advanced as far as Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, and Sumatra, and maintained trade links as far as Indonesia.
  • Their military and economic power was reflected in the grand architectural works of the period at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Dharasuram, and Tribhuvanam.
• The Cholas built more than two hundred temples, representing a continuation of earlier Pallava architecture with some variations; they built brick temples in the earlier period and stone temples later.
  • The first Chola ruler, Vijayalaya Chola, built a stone temple at Narthamalai — one of the finest examples of early Chola temple architecture.
  • The Balasubramaniya temple at Kannanur in the Pudukkottai region, and the Thirukkatalai temple, were built during the reign of Aditya I.
  • The Nageswarar temple at Kumbakonam is famous for its sculptural work.
  • King Parantaka I built the Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur (Trichy district) and the Muvarkoil at Kodumbalur — good examples of later Chola architecture and sculpture.
• Besides these, the greatest landmark in the history of South Indian architecture is the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur — also called the “Big Temple” — built by Rajaraja I, and notable for many architectural achievements; it is the largest and tallest temple in Tamil Nadu.
  • Rajendra Chola built an equally famous temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, adding further credit to Chola art and architecture.
  • King Kulothunga I built a temple to the Sun God at Kumbakonam — the first of its kind in South Indian architecture.
  • Rajaraja II built the Airavatesvara temple at Dharasuram.
• These temples amply illustrate the style of architecture prevalent between the 8th and 12th centuries CE, and their influence can also be seen in the architecture of temples in Ceylon and in Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Chavakam (Java).
  • Rajaraja I also constructed a Shiva temple at Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka, in the same pattern of Chola architecture.

Features of Chola Architecture

• Chola temples can be categorised into two groups — Early Temples and Later Temples; the early temples were influenced by Pallava architecture, while the later ones show Chalukya influence.
• Temples were surrounded by a high boundary wall, unlike in the Nagara style.
  • The earlier examples were modest in size, while the later ones were huge and large, with vimanas or gopuras dominating the landscape.
  • Initially, the gopuram features were more prominent, but in later stages the vimanas took the forefront.
• The spire takes the form of a stepped pyramid, popularly known as the vimana; Pallava influence can be seen in the spire/vimana, similar to the Rathas, with an octagon-shaped crowning element known as the shikhara.
  • The sanctums of the Chola temples were both circular and square in plan, and the walls of the inner sanctum sanctorum were beautified; on the upper side of the sanctum, special vimanas were built with a dome-shaped shikhara and kalasa, which were also found atop the gopurams.
  • The temples follow the Panchayatan style, but without vimanas on the subsidiary shrines.
  • Lion motifs at the base of pillars, as seen in Pallava architecture, are absent; Kudu decoration is present, though it differs somewhat from the Pallava style.
• The temple typically consists of the garbhagriha, antarala, and sabhamandapa; many temples also have pillared mandapas, namely the ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, and nandi mandapa.
  • A water tank is present within the temple boundary.
  • The raw materials used were blocks of gneiss and granite.
• The important example of the early group is the Vijayalaya temple, while the later group is represented by the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• A special feature of Chola architecture is the purity of its artistic tradition; sculptures and inscriptions are also fixed onto the walls of these temples.

Vijayalaya Temple

• Built by Vijayalaya, the founder of the Chola dynasty, in the 9th century CE (the temple is also known as Vijayalaya Choleeswaram); located in Narthamalai, in Pudukkottai district.
  • Narthamalai, a cluster of small hills, lies 25 km from Trichy on the Trichy–Pudukkottai route.
• The west-facing temple is situated within a square courtyard and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • It has four tiers — the first three square and the fourth circular — in a pyramidal shape.
  • At the top is an oval-shaped shikhara, topped with a kalasa-like finial.
  • A mandapa is situated before the square sanctum, which has a decorated entrance flanked by five-foot-high carved dwarapalakas on both sides.
• Around the main temple are seven other small temples, all facing it.
  • Kudu decoration can be seen on the korni portion.

Brihadeeswarar Temple

• The later phase of Chola architecture broadly begins with the reign of Uttama Chola.
  • The most important specimen of this phase is the Brihadeeswarar (“Lord of the Universe”) Temple of Thanjavur.
• Dedicated to Lord Shiva, the temple complex is known as Rajarajeshwaram and Peruvudaiyaar.
  • It was called the “Dakshina Meru”, as a complement to the “Uttara Meru,” the sacred Mount Kailash.
• Considered one of the largest temples in India, it is built exclusively of granite (the first fully granite temple in the world) and was completed within five years.
  • Granite is not found within a radius of 100 km, and it is not known from where the massive quantities of granite used were brought.
  • It was built in 1010 CE, during the reign of Rajaraja I.
  • The temple stands amidst fortified walls, probably added in the 16th century CE.
• There are three main entrances: Keralantakam, the main entrance, marked by a 30 m high gopuram (commemorating Rajaraja’s victory over the Chera king); Rasarasan, which opens into a large central area housing the main shrine; and Tiruannukam, the northern entrance to the complex, without a gopuram.
  • Within the complex are many sub-shrines, built during various successive stages of its history.
• The plan of the temple consists of the garbhagriha, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, stapana-mahamandapa, and vadya-mandapa.
  • The sanctum is 28 m square, housing a unique and extraordinary lingam (8.7 m high); the main shikhara, known as the srivimana, is about 66 m high and has 14 storeys, decorated with niches and images of the Saiva cult.
  • A cupolic dome rests on a single 25-foot-square block of granite; the base of the dome is adorned with two Nandis at each corner.
• In front of the temple is a large Nandi Mandapa, housing a massive monolithic image of Nandi — the second largest in the country, after the colossal bull at the Lepakshi Veerbhadra Temple in Andhra Pradesh.
• The circumambulatory corridor around the ardhamandapa contains fresco paintings, discovered in the first half of the last century, depicting a variety of secular themes.
• This World Heritage monument, established as the world’s tallest temple tower, used some 1,30,000 tons of granite stone. The temple has survived six earthquakes.

Airavatesvara Temple

• The Airavatesvara Temple is a Hindu temple of Dravidian architecture located in Kumbakonam, Thanjavur district, in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
  • Built by Chola emperor Rajaraja II in the 12th century CE, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur and the Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram — together referred to as the “Great Living Chola Temples.”
• The temple is dedicated to Shiva, but also reverentially displays the Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, along with the legends associated with the Nayanmars — the Bhakti-movement saints of Shaivism.
  • The main temple, dedicated to Shiva, is based on a square plan but also displays other Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Harihara, and Ardhanarishvara, among others.
  • It opens to the sunrise, and its sanctum, as well as the mandapas, are aligned on an east–west axis.
  • In addition to the main shrine, the temple complex has a number of smaller shrines, gopura, and other monuments, some partially ruined or restored in later centuries.
• The temple is famed for its bronze sculptures, the artwork on its walls, the depiction of Nandi, and the scale of its tower.
  • Although built by Rajendra I — a further point of note — the temple is also noteworthy for its numerous inscriptions, none of which are actually his.
• It is considerably smaller in scale than the Brihadeeswarar temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and also differs from them in its highly ornate style; the inner sanctum, unlike its predecessors, is not encircled by a circumambulatory path, and contains a Shiva-linga, an aniconic representation of the god.
  • Its main tower is considerably lower than the two earlier temples, at 24 m in height.
• The front pillared hall, the agra mandapa, is conceptualised as a horse-drawn chariot — a trait inspired by Pallava architecture; its columns are ornamented with scenes from the epics and Puranas, such as the burning of Manmatha, Parvati performing penance, Shiva’s marriage, the birth of Skanda/Kumara, Shiva’s fights with the asuras, and other narrative scenes.
  • The base of the outer pillars of the agra mandapa depicts gaja-yalis with curled trunks and tails, along with a great number of other representations.
• The base of the main temple is notable for its stone frieze of panels containing inscriptions of the stories associated with the 63 Nayanmars (Shiva saints), a number of which also depict women in yoga postures and other scenes from everyday life.
• The temple also features a separate, impressive Amman shrine, the Periya Nayaki, dedicated to Devi.
  • The perimeter wall has pillared cloisters on the inside, with cells in between for deities; carved on a balustrade of a staircase leading to the pillared cloisters is the celebrated “Rishaba Kunjaram,” a stone sculpture featuring a conjoined bull and elephant.

Sculpture

• Stone and metal sculptures are found in plenty in Chola temples, depicting the socio-religious ideas of the Chola period.
  • The Nataraja sculpture is world famous, not only for its beauty but also for its spiritual meaning; Vishnu idols are placed in Vaishnava temples.
  • A certain spiritual calmness characterises the sculptural representations of Vishnu in Vaishnava temples, as well as those of the Alwars; the temples of the Imperial Cholas are covered with exquisite, well-composed sculptures and frescoes.
• The artists used the lost-wax technique and followed the Indian Shilpa Shastra (traditional canons of iconometry) in full.
  • The sculptures of this period are described as the cultural epitome of the Chola era and are considered the finest specimens of Chola art.
  • The Cholas made extensive use of sculpture to decorate the walls, pillars, and roofs of their temples, and much of this decorative sculpture survives to this day.
• Realism dominated Chola-period sculpture; scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and the lives of the 63 Nayanmars were carved in narrative panels on temple walls.
• Notable examples of Chola bronze sculpture include depictions of Shiva in various forms, such as Shiva Chandrashekhara, Shiva Nataraja, Shiva Tripurantaka (Tripuravijaya), and Shiva Vinadhara.

Portraits

• The Cholas excelled the Pallavas in the art of portrait-making.
  • The best specimens of Chola portraiture are found on the walls of the Koranganatha temple and the Nageswarasamy temple; portraits of Cholamadevi and Kulothunga III can be seen at the Kalahasti temple — all fine examples of the Chola art of portrait-making.

Paintings

• The art of painting flourished under the Cholas, with figures painted in a realistic style; the proficiency of Chola painters is evident in the paintings at the Big Temple, among other examples.
  • Scenes from the Periyapuranam are beautifully depicted at the Kailasanathar temple in Kanchipuram, while the Vishnu temple at Malaiyadipatti contains further fine specimens of Chola painting.
• Rajaraja I and Rajendra contributed significantly to the development of the art of painting during the Chola period.

Music

• The art of music developed during the Chola period: twenty-threepanns (melodic modes) were used, along with the seven svaras — sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni.
  • The hymns of the Alwars and Nayanmars were sung in every temple; Nambiandar Nambi and Nathamuni contributed much to the development of music, and books were written on the subject.
• Several musicians were appointed at the Brihadeeswarar temple; drums, the udukkai, veena, and flute were among the famous musical instruments of the period.
  • The Sagadakkottigal formed a group of musicians; endowments were made to promote music, musicians were honoured by the kings, and temples and mutts imparted training in vocal and instrumental music.

Dance

• The Chola kings patronised the art of dance; Bharatanatyam and Kathakali were two types of dance performed during the Chola period.
  • Lord Shiva was represented as the exponent of the Karana dance; the Natarajar temple at Chidambaram and the Sarangapani temple at Kumbakonam display dancing poses of Lord Nataraja.
• Rajaraja I appointed 400 dancing girls at the Big Temple in Thanjavur, with two dance directors to coordinate them.
  • Dance dramas were also performed on stage during festival times, and the Chola kings made endowments to promote the art of dance.

Drama

• The Cholas promoted the art of drama, with music and dance closely affiliated to it.
  • Many types of theatres and stages existed for the performance of dramas; Rajarajeswara Natakam and Rajarajavijayam were among the dramas enacted during festival times.
• Drama actors received honours from the Chola kings; Koothu was another form of drama, and inscriptions refer to varieties such as Ariyakoothu, Chakkaikoothu, and Santhikoothu.