The Chalukya dynasty ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries.
During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties.
The Chalukyas of Badami: It was the earliest dynasty, ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century.
The Chalukyas of Badami began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II.
This dynasty ruled for nearly two hundred years (between the 6th and the 8th century).
The rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami.
The Chalukya of vengi (also called Eastern Chalukyas):
The Chalukyas of Vengi branched off from the Chalukyas of Badami. The Badami ruler Pulakeshin II (608–644 A.D) conquered the Vengi region in eastern Deccan, after defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina dynasty. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana the governor of this newly acquired territory in 624 A.D.
After the death of Pulakeshin II, Vishnuvardhana’s viceroyalty became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. Thus, the Eastern Chalukyas kingdom was formed.
Ruled the Vengi region of present-day Andhra Pradesh until c. 1130 CE. They continued ruling the region as feudatories of the Cholas until 1189 CE.
The Chalukyas of Kalyani (also known as western Chalukyas):
The Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami. The Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries.
In the late 10th century, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire, the descendants of Chalukyas of Badami quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.
These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty.
Significance of Chalukya Dynasty
The rise of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the rise of Badami Chalukyas.
For the first time in history, a South Indian kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers.
The rise of that empire also saw the birth of efficient administration, rise in overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called Vesara.
Around the ninth century, it also saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature in the Jaina Puranas, Veerashaiva Vachanas and Brahmanical traditions.
Further, the eleventh century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.
Sources of Chalukyan History
Inscriptions constitute the main source of information about the Badami Chalukya history. Important among them are:
the Badami cave inscriptions (578) of Mangalesa
Kappe Arabhatta record of 700
Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakesi II
the Kanchi Kailasanatha inscription and
Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscriptions of Vikramaditya II
Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II
At the time of that visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakesi II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising of 99,000 villages each.
That empire possibly covered present day Karnataka, Maharashtra and coastal Konkan
Vidyapati Bilhana, the famous poet in the court of Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana, mentions a legend in his work, Vikramankadeva Charita, which has been used to reconstruct History as well.
History of the Chalukyas
Chalukya of Badami
The Chalukyas became a sovereign power with Pulakesin I (533-66).
He laid the foundations of his kingdom by making the hill near Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka into a strong, fortress in 543-44 A.D. and performed a horse sacrifice.
He established his capital at the hill-fort of Vatapi (Badami). The choice of capital was dictated by the strategic considerations as the place was fortified by hills and rivers.
He adopted the title Vallabheshvara and performed the ashvamedha.
He was succeeded by Kirtivarman I (566-597) who further extended the kingdom by defeating the Mauryas of North-Konkana, the Nalas of Nalavadi (Bellari) and the Kadambas of Banavasi. Kirtivarman I was succeeded by Mangalesa, his brother who began to rule as a regent, as Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman I was a minor.
Mangalesa established the power of the Chalukyas over the entire region between the two seas and defeated the Kalachuris of Chedi.
Pulakesin II (609-642 A.D.) had to wage a civil war against his uncle, Mangalesa, who refused to hand over the power. He adopted the title of Satyashraya.
With the expeditions of Pulakesin-II the Chalukyas became the Paramount power in the Deccan.
He defeated the Western Gangas and the Alupas in the south and the Latas, Malavas and Gurjaras in the north offered their submission to him.
The army of Pulakesin-II checked the forces of Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada.
Pulakesin-II also defeated the Vishnukundins of Andhra delta. He annexed Vengi, lying between the mouths of the Krishna and Godavari. He 621 A.D. he sent his younger brother Vishnuvardhana to consolidate the conquest and take over the area. In 631 A.D. Vishnuvardhana was allowed to from his own kingdom.
Thus, began the line of the Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in control of the area for more than five hundred years.
His first expedition against the Pallava kingdom, which was then ruled by Mahendravarman I was a complete success and occupied the northern part of Pallava kingdom.
Hoever Pulakesin’s second invasion of the Pallava territory ended in failure. He was badly defeated in several battles by Narasimhavarman-I, who had succeeded Mahendravarman. Narasimhavarman then attacked the Chalukyas, captured Badami and probably killed Pulakesin-II.
One of the paintings in Ajanta represents Pulakesin II receiving the ambassador from Iran. On account of the growing power of Pulakesin II and the trade relations with India, the Iranian king Khusrau II sent an ambassador to Badami in return for the ambassador sent by Pulakesin to Iran in 625 A.D.
Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim visited the kingdom of Pulakesin in about 641 A.D.
Pulakesin II encouraged art and architecture, promoted religion and learning. His court poet Ravi Kirti wrote his eulogy in the Aihole inscription.
Vikramaditya I (644-681 A.D.) the son of Pulakesin ll’s son succeeded in bringing about sem blance of unity and the power of Chalukyas was gradually restored with the regaining of the territory lost to the Pallavas. He drove out the Pallavas, formed an alliance with the Pandyas, and repeatedly raided into Pallava territory.
He plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi, thus avenging his father’s defeat and death at the hands of the Pallavas.
Vinayadityas (681-693 A.D) reign was generally peaceful and prosperous.
Vijayaditya(693-733 A.D.) the next ruler had the longest and also the most prosperous and peaceful reign. It was marked by a great increase in temple building
The Chalukyan king Vikramaditya II (733-745 A.D.) is said to have overrun Kanchi three times. In 740 A.D. he completely routed the Pallavas and his victory ended the Pallava supremacy in the far south. His reign is also significant for his repulsion of the Arab invasion of south Gujarat.
The last Chalukyan ruler Kirtivarman II (744-745 A.D.) was defeated by one of their feudatories, Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and thus came an end to the Chalukya dynasty of Badami.
Badami Chalukya
Contribution of Chalukyas of Badami:
The Chalukyas established an extensive empire in the Deccan. They brought glory to their family first under tne Chalukyas of Badami for nearly two hundred years and then for nearly the same period of time, under the Chalukyas of Kalyan. Thus, the dynasty ruled over an extensive area of South India for quite a long time.
It produced many capable rulers both as military commanders and good administrators. Many rulers of this dynasty fought against the mighty rulers of both the South and the North of India and succeeded many times. They assumed high titles like Parmeswara, Paramabhattaraka, etc. and governed their empire well. Thus, this dynasty played an important part in the politics of South India for quite a long time. T
The Chalukyas also participated in the progress of South Indian culture. The kingdom of the Chalukyas was economically prosperous and it had several big cities and ports which were the centres of internal and external trade even with countries outside India. The Chalukyas utilised this prosperity for the development of architecture, literature and fine arts.
The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions.
This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles.
During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular.
In present time, a celebration called Chalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.
The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole.
Contribution to Religion:
The Chalukyas were the followers of Brahmanical religion.
They performed many yajnas according to Vedic rites and many religious texts were written and compiled during their rule. Sacrifices were given great importance. The king himself performed a number of sacrifices including Asvamedha and Vajpeya.
Despite this stress on the orthodox form of Hindu religion, the Puranic version grew popular. It was this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu. Shiva and other gods.
Superb structures were set up at Vatapi and Pattadakal in the honor of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.
Chalukyas followed a policy of religious tolerance.
During their reign Jainism prospered in the Deccan. The famous Jaina scholar Ravikirti was given the honour in the court of Pulkesin II.
Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya also donated many villages to Jaina scholars.
Buddhism was certainly on decline but Chalukyas treated it with tolerance. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang found many well established Viharas and monasteries during his visit to the kingdom of the Chalukyas.
Even the Parsees were allowed to settle down and practice their faith without any interference by the others in the Thana district of Bombay.
Contribution to Architecture:
The Chalukyas were great patrons of art and architecture.
They developed the vesara style in the building of structural temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.
Examples of early medieval rock-cut shrines and structural shrines are found.
The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.
Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Aihole, Badami, Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
Cave architecture:
Generally represents Brahmanical/Hindu temples.
There are different pattern and designs i.e there is no element of uniformity.
Some cave temple have sanctum (Garbhagriha) and Assembly hall (mandapa). Cave temple are characterised by pillars having bases and capital and normally square in shape.
In general caves have engravings, some representing beautiful at form for e.g. “Natraja”.
Aihole Caves:
There are two notable cave shrines at Aihole, one Shaiva and the other Jaina, both with heavily ornamented interiors.
Ravanaphadi cave:
It is a Shaiva cave.
It consists of a central hall, two side shrine sections, and a garbhagriha with a linga at the back.
There are sculptures on the walls and on part of the ceiling as well. These include representations of Shiva as Nataraja and of the Sapta-Matrikas.
Compared to the figures at Ellora and Badami, the figures are more slender and have tall crowns.
Outside the entrance of the cave, there are carvings of dwarfs and doorkeepers wearing Scythian-type attire.
Badami Caves:
These caves are carved into the red sandstone hillside.
Of the three major caves, the largest one is Vaishnava, while the others are Shaiva and Jaina in affiliation.
The caves have a simple plan, consisting of a verandah and a pillared hall leading into a small square sanctum in the back wall.
The walls and ceilings are decorated with carvings.
The cave 3 is the largest, most ornate and most impressive of early Chalukya caves.
It has impressive relief sculptures of the various Vishnu incarnations, including Varaha (boar), Narasimha (lion), and Vamana (dwarf). The boar was also the symbol of the Western Chalukyas.
It also has mithuna figures (amorous couples) which are exceptional in their variety and finesse.
Temple architecture:
The structural temples of the period were for the most part built out of large blocks of stone, without the use of mortar.
The inner walls and ceilings have sculptural ornamentation. The temples of Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami give the names of guilds of architects and sculptors, and the individual craftspeople who worked at these sites.
The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.
The first stage was early architectural phase (6th–early 8th centuries) and is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami.
The second stage was the later and grander 8th century temples located at Pattadakal is represented by the temples at Pattadakal.
Uniqueness of temple building activities is the same site follow both the northern and southern styles but in different temples.
They laid the foundation of a new style of architecture known as the Vesara style in the building of structural temples which shows an amalgam of northern and southern features but attained a distinctive identity of its own during these centuries.
However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.
Temples in Aihole:
At Aihole alone, we come across 70 temples. It is known as “city of temples” and “the cradle of Indian temple architecture”.
Most of the Aihole temples are Hindu shrines and show considerable variation in plan.
Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.
Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall. It is neither in northern nor in southern style and looks like a village assembly structure. It has a pillared porch, a large square hall with pillars arranged in two concentric squares, at the end of which is a small shrine area.
Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya. It has northern style characterised by Garbhagriha and Mandap.
Huchimalligudi temple.
The Jain temple at Meguti. This one is in southern style. It has the famous Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II.
Temples in Badami:
Here, the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their architectural beauty.
Melagutti Sivalaya
Temples in Pattadakal:
There are ten temples here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.
The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style.
Sangamesvara temple
The Virupaksha temple is the most important one.
It is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.
It was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II.Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.
largest and most profusely sculpted shrine at Pattadakal.
This was dedicated to Shiva and built at the instance of Lokamahadevi, chief queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II.
It represent the climax of early Chalukya temple architecture. This is the only temple in this time having Gopuram first time in Deccan.
Similar to temples made in the Dravida style, it consists of a complex of shrines, including a Nandi shrine, within a rectangular walled enclosure.
The main temple consists of a pillared hall. The sanctum is with an enclosed passage for circumambulation (this is known as the sandhara style).
The shikhara is in the Dravida style. Niches in the outer walls have fine, deep carvings, mostly of Shiva.
The temple’s interior is also ornamented with sculptures.
The exceptional carving of Durga in one of the niche shrines has been found. The doorway leading into the sanctum which enshrines a linga is elaborately carved with dvarapalas and other figures.
The Papanath temple at Pattadakal is in northern style.
Temples in Mahakuta:
At Mahakuta, near Badami, there are some 20 temples belonging to the early Western Chalukya period.
Almost all of them with northern style curvilinear shikharas.
The Swarg Brahma temple, Alampur is very rich in ornamentation.
Painting:
Among the fine arts, primarily, it were painting that flourished under the patronage of the Chalukyas.
Some of the frescoes of the Ajanta were built during the reign of the Chalukyas.
One painting exhibits the scene of welcome to the ambassador of Persia at the court of Pulakesin II.
Literature
The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II was prasasti or eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry.
A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the “dark Sarasvati” have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II).
Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King Someshvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa.
From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived. Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the “natural language”.
Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period
The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit. Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.
Government
Army
The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps and a powerful navy.
Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatabala referring to their powerful armies.
The government levied taxes called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode, and Pannaya.
Land governance
The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of ten villages).
Later, many autonomous regions existed ruled by feudatories like Alupas, Gangas, Banas, and Sendrakas. Local assemblies looked after local issues.
Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins), looked after agraharas (like Ghatika or place of higher learning) like the ones at Badami (2000 mahajans) and Aihole (500 mahajanas).
Coinage
The Badami Chalukyas minted coins of a different standard compared to the northern kingdoms.
The coins had Nagari and Kannada
They minted coins with symbols of temples, lion or boar facing right, and the lotus. The coins weighed four grams, called honnu in old Kannada and had fractions such as fana and the quarter fana, whose modern day equivalent being hana (literally means, money)
Religion
The rule of the Badami Chalukya proved a period of religious harmony.
They initially followed Vedic Hinduism, as seen in the various temples dedicated to many popular Hindu deities with Aihole
Later, from the time of Vikramaditya I, the people took an inclination towards Shaivism and sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas and Kalamukhas existed.
They actively encouraged Jainism, attested to by one of the Badami cave temples and other Jain temples in the Aihole complex.
Society
The Hindu caste system appeared .
Sati may have been absent as widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records.
Devadasis’ appeared in temples.
Sage Bharata’s Natyashastra the precursor to Bharatanatyam, the dance of South India had been popular as seen in many sculptures and mentioned in inscriptions.V
Women enjoyed political power in administration.
Chalukyas of Vengi
Eastern Chalukyas, also known as the Chalukyas of Vengi, were a dynasty that ruled parts of South India between the 7th and 12th centuries.
The Chalukyas of Vengi separated out from theBadami Chalukyas.
They started out as governors of the Chalukyas of Badami in the Deccan region.
Subsequently, they became a sovereign power, and ruled the Vengi region of present-day Andhra Pradesh until c. 1001 CE. They continued ruling the region as feudatories of the Medieval Cholas until 1189 CE.
After destroying the remnants of the Vishnukundina dynasty, Badami ruler Pulakeshin II (609–642 AD) controlled the Vengi territory in eastern Deccan.
In 624 A.D, he placed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as governor of the newly gained region.
After Pulakeshin died facing the Pallavas in the Battle of Vatapi, his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana developed an independent state.
So, the founder of the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was Kubja Vishnuvardhana.
From 642 CE to 705 CE some kings, except Jayasimha I ruled for very short durations. After it, there was a period of unrest marked by family feuds and weak governments.
Meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas defeated the Badami Western Chalukyas. The Rashtrakutas repeatedly overran Vengi’s kingdom, putting the weak rulers of Vengi to the test.
Until Gunaga Vijayaditya III came to power in 848 CE, no Eastern Chalukya monarch could keep them in check. Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta emperor at the time, treated him as an ally, and Vijayaditya again declared independence following Amoghavarsha’s death.
Lastly, the Vengi kingdom succumbed to the Chola empire and came to an end. The dynasty began claiming legendary moon dynasty roots in the 11th century. The dynasty descended from the Moon, according to tradition, via Budha, Pururava, the Pandavas, and Udayana.
Important Rulers of Eastern Chalukyas
Kubja Vishnuvardhana
He reigned from 624–641 AD and was Pulakeshin II’s brother.
From 615 AD, Vishnuvardhana controlled the Vengi lands in eastern Andhra Pradesh as viceroy under Pulakeshin II.
Vishnuvardhana eventually declared independence and established the Eastern Chalukya dynasty (624 AD).
He was the monarch of a kingdom that stretched from Nellore to Visakhapatnam.
He was given the name Vishamasiddhi (conqueror of difficulties).
He fought in the battles between his brother Pulakeshin II and the Pallava Narasimhavarma I in 641, and he most likely died in battle.
He was succeeded by his son, Jayasimha I.
After him, many weak rulers came to the throne.
Mangi Yuvaraja (682 – 706 AD)
The accession of Mangi Yuvaraja heralds the beginning of the end of a series of weak or ineffectual rulers, as the kingdom now has to face up to the increasing aggression of the Rashtrakutas,
Rashtrakutas not only threaten the main Chalukyan kingdom but also overrun the Vengi kingdom several times and have to be repulsed.
Rajaraja Narendra (1019 – 1061 AD)
He became the king of the Vengi kingdom.
He established the city Rajahmahendravaram (Rajahmundry).
His time was known for the rich social and cultural heritage of the Vengi empire.
Rajahmundry was sacked by Western Chalukyas and the region saw wars between the Western Chalukya and other neighbouring dynasties, with the political backing of Chola dynasty.
Rajaraja Narendra, son of Vimaladitya Chalukya, married Amangai Devi, daughter of Rajendra Chola I.
From Arinjaya Chola forward, the mighty Cholas and Chalukyas had a feudal alliance that lasted three centuries.
When a political vacuum emerged, Rajaraja Narendra’s son became the Chola empire’s ruler in Gangaikondacholapuram, merging the Chola and Chalukya empires.
Administration of Eastern Chalukyas
The Eastern Chalukya court was largely a Badami republic in its early years, but as decades passed, local elements gained prominence and the Vengi kingdom developed its own characteristics.
External influences remained, as the Eastern Chalukyas had long and close relationships with the Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, Cholas, and Chalukyas of Kalyani, which were either friendly or hostile.
The administration of the Eastern Chalukyas was based on Hindu philosophy.
The inscriptions refer to the traditional seven components of the state (Saptanga), as well as the eighteen Tirthas (Offices).
It includes Mantri (Minister), Purohita (Chaplain), Senapati (Commander), Yuvaraja (Heir-apparent), Dauvarika (Door keeper), Pradhana (Chief), Adhyaksha (Head of department), and many.
According to sources, the administrative subdivisions Vishaya and Kottam existed.
The royal edicts (recording land or village donations) are addressed to all Naiyogi Kavallabhas, as well as the Gramyakas, the granted village’s residents.
The Manneyas are also mentioned in inscriptions from time to time. They had land or revenue assignments in various villages.
Religion of Eastern Chalukyas
Hinduism was the dominant religion, whereas Shaivism was more popular than Vaishnavism in the Eastern Chalukya empire,
Some rulers proclaimed themselves to be Parama Maheswaras (Emperors).
The Vijayaditya II, Yuddhamalla I, Vijayaditya III, and Bhima I were all involved in the construction of temples in the Eastern Chalukya kingdom.
The annual Jatra of the Mahasena temple involved a procession of the deity’s idol.
Buddhism was in decline whereas Jainism was able to maintain considerable public support.
This is evidenced by the numerous portraits of Jainism seen in wrecked villages across Andhra Pradesh.
The inscriptions also detail the construction of Jain temples and land grants in exchange for the monarchs’ and people’s support.
Vimaladitya even declared himself a devotee of Mahavira’s doctrine.
Architecture of Eastern Chalukyas
The Eastern Chalukyan rulers built a huge number of temples as a result of the widespread Shiva devotional cult throughout the kingdom.
The construction of 108 temples is attributed to Vijayaditya II.
Yuddhamalla I built a Kartikeya temple in Vijayawada.
The magnificent Draksharama and Chalukya Bhimavaram (Samalkot) temples were built by Bhima I.
Following the Pallava and Chalukya traditions, the Eastern Chalukyas created their own distinct architectural style, which can be seen in the Pancharama shrines (particularly the Draksharama temple) and Biccavolu temples.
The Golingeshvara temple at Biccavolu has rich sculptures of deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Agni, and Surya.
Also, the famous Jain centres of the time were Vijayawada, Jenupadu, Penugonda (West Godavari), and Munugodu.
Chalukyas of Kalyani
The Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami. The Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta controlled most of Deccan and Central India for over two centuries.
In the late 10th century, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire, the descendants of Chalukyas of Badami quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.
These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century. The dynasty is called Western Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty.
This dynasty played a dominant role for two centuries from AD 973 to 1200 in the politics of the Deccan and South India.
For over a century, the two empires of Southern India, the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynastyof Tanjore fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi.
During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation.
M.K.L.N. Sastry states that the Chalukyas of Kalyani followed the imperial traditions of the Vatapi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and their period of more than two hundred years was a period of cultural efflorescence of Karnataka.
Innumerable lithic records and some copper plates and literary texts like Vikramankadevacharita, Manasoltasa and Vikramankabhyudctya of Bhulokamalla Somevara, Mitakshara of Vignaneswara, Merutunga’s Prabandhachintamani and Ranna’s Gadayuddha and Ajitapurana are very helpful to a student of history in reconstructing the historical and cultural edifice of the times of Kalyani Chalukyas.
Brief history of Chalukyas of Kalyani:
Taila was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who claims to have won a victory over a Chola invader. Satyasraya was followed in succession by Vikramaditya V, Jayasimha I and Jagadekamalla.
Jagadekamalla claims to have defeated Paramara Bhoja, the ruler of Malwa and the ruler of Chedi and Rajendra of the Chola line.
Jagadekamalla was followed by Somesvara I who ruled from AD 1042 to 1068 with the titles of Ahavamalla and Trailokyamalla.
Bilhana in his Vikramankadevacharita states that Somesvara I built the city of Kalyana and made it his capital.
After Somesvara I, his son Somesvara II became the ruler with the title of Bhuvanaikamalla and ruled till AD 1076.
From Bilhana, we come to know that Somesvara I wanted to make his second son Vikramaditya his successor and after the refusal of the offer by Vikramaditya, Somesvara II was made the ruler.
It appears that the relations between the brothers strained as Somesvara II took to evil ways. A civil war broke out and in the end; Vikramaditya won and became the ruler.
Vikramaditya VI had the title of Tribhuvanamalla even before he assumed the sovereignty.
Vikramaditya bore the title of Tribhuvanamalla from AD 1071 and ruled from AD 1076 to 1126.
Vikramaditya started a new era of Chalukya Vikrama era and continued wars against the Cholas.
During the rule of Vikramaditya VI, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south.
His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal.
Vikramaditya VI was followed by his son, Somesvara III, who ruled from AD 1126 to 1135.
He assumed the titles of Bhulokamalla and Sarvajna Chakravarti. He also started a new era by name Bhulokamalla era.
He appears to be a peace-loving ruler. He was the author of Manasollasa and Vikramankabhyudaya in Kannada.
He was succeeded by Jagadekamalla II who ruled from AD 1135 to 1151. Jagadekamalla II was followed by his son Tailapa III, who ruled from AD 1151 to 1163.
As Tailapa III was a very weak and incompetent ruler the Kalachuri chieftain Bijjala, slowly and gradually usurped power by AD 1157 and Tailapa III died while fighting with the Kakatiyas.
Somesvara IV, the son of Talipa III ascended the Chalukya throne but he failed to safeguard the Chalukyan power and was defeated in AD 1190 by the Hoysala Balala II and thus ended the Western Chalukyan power of Kalyani.
The death of Vikramaditya VI saw the beginning of the decline of Chalukyan power. Their subordinates the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Hoyasalas of Dwarasamudra and the Kalachuris began to take advantage of the weakness of the rulers and began to make preparation to declare their independence.
The Chalukyas of Kalyani disappeared from the arena of political power by AD 1190 during the reign of Somesvara IV.
Polity:
The Chalukyas of Kalyani also followed the hereditary monarchical form of government, wherein the king was the head of the state with effective power.
They bore the titles of Samastabhuvanasraya and Vijayaditya. Their insignia was a boar signifying the Varahavatara of Lord Vishnu that protected the earth.
Interestingly the Chalukyan queens and other family members actively participated in the administrative process.
Queen Lakshmidevi, wife of Vikramaditya VI claimed in an epigraph to be ruling from Kalyana.
We have some more evidence of Lachchala Mahadevi, wife of Somesvara I and Ketaladevi another queen of Somesvara I participating in administration.
Manasollasa prescribes the qualities of the ministers and mostly ministers’ posts were hereditary. Manasollasa suggested the number of ministers to be 7 or 8.
There is a view that the Western Chalukyan polity had elements of feudalism because of the existence of graded powerful political intermediaries like Samanta, Mahasamata, Mahasamantadhipati and Mahamandalesvara along with Senapathi, Dandaanayaka, Mahadandanayaka and Meghaprachandadandanayaka of the military service.
For administrative convenience the territory was divided as Rashtra, Vishaya, Nadu, Kampana and Thana.
There is no clear-cut demarcation between Rashtra and Vishaya and Nadu except that Vishaya and Nadu are considered as smaller units than Rashtra.
All the copper plate charters reconciling important transactions are addressed to all Rastrapatis, Vishayapatis, Gramakutakas, Ayuktakas, Niyuktakas, Adhikarikas, Mohattaras and others.
The above indicates the channels of communication between the ruler and the ruled to be collective.
Social life:
It is believed that during the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, social life was based on traditional Varnasarama model.
Though caste was universal and hereditary, the connection between caste and occupation was not rigid.
The woman of higher strata of society played an important role in social and administrative matters.
Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals
The rise of Veerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system which retained royal support.
Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi’s and Kalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi’s skill in dance and music.
The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th-century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known.
Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating that Sati though present was on a voluntary basis.
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities.
People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime.
In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha, Jain Palli and Buddhist Vihara.
Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause.
Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen. The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki) etc.
Economy:
Trade and commence and agriculture were the backbones of the economy of the Chalukyan state.
Agriculture:
Majority of the people were engaged in agriculture as an occupation. The rulers encouraged agricultural operations by providing irrigational facilities like excavation of tanks, construction of irrigation canals which increased the fertility of the soil.
A number of epigraphs testify to the above mentioned activities.
Epigraphs refer to the classifications of cultivated land as wet land, dry land and garden land, and tax collected from agriculturalists was not uniform and it varied from area to area.
An inscription from Kolhipaikkai records that the lands were classified as Uttama, Madhayama and Adhama and even the villages were classified as above on the basis of fertility and yield.
There existed private ownership of land along with joint ownership in villages. What epigraphs prove of this period is that economic disparities among different sections of the populace are noticeable.
The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords.
If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.
Trade:
Traders were organized into a number of autonomous guilds, with their own traditions and insignia and Prasasti.
The most celebrated of such merchant guilds was the 500 Swamis of Ayyavolepura; who claim to be the protectors of Vira Bananjadharama, i.e., the law of the noble merchants.
G.S. Dikshit is of the view that the period of the Chalukyas of Kalyana was the heyday of the guilds like the reign of their enemies the Cholas.
The most important guild of Ayyavola, Ainurrvar, Virabalanja or Valanjiyar or Nanadesi had its origin in Aihole in Bijapur district.
This guild was very active in the regions of Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra, Rayalseema, Telengana and Kerala; it had its activities overseas such as Burma, Malaya and Sumatra.
The growth of trade and commerce led to the growth of market towns in all the above mentioned regions.
Religion:
What we notice during this period in the religious domain is a general atmosphere of spiritual conciliation in which many creeds lived together on a basis of mutual tolerance.
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi, was a setback to Jainism.
Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged, Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
The growth of Virashaivism in the Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century.
Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without a caste system. In his Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote “work is worship” (Kayakave Kailasa).
Also known as the Lingayats (worshipers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women.
This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood.
The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court, Harihara and Raghavanka, were Virashaivas.
Saivism and Vaishnavism were the major branches of Pauranic Dharma of the present-day Hinduism. Sakti was also worshipped as Kollapura Mahalakshmi and Kartikeya was also worshipped and the main centre of Kartikeya worship was Kudidatani in Bellary district.
Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery in Srirangam, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga).
He later wrote Sribhashya, a commentary on Badarayana Brahmasutra, a critique on the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara.
Ramanujacharya’s stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound.
Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries.
Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and a host of Basavanna’s followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems called Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva.
The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy.
However, Buddhism flourished at Belagave and Dambal.
There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time which suggest the religious transition was smooth.
Literature:
The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and Sanskrit.
In a golden age of Kannada literature, Jain scholars wrote about the life of Tirthankaras and Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas. Nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded.
Early works by Brahmin writers were on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Puranas and Vedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time.
Most notable among Kannada scholars were Ranna, grammarian Nagavarma II, minister Durgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna.
Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the “three gems of Kannada literature“.
He was bestowed the title “Emperor among poets” (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit.
Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gada yuddha) of 982 in Champu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war.
He wrote Ajitha purana in 993 describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects.
His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.
Kavyavalokana in poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar and Vastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.
Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha’s Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.
A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada called Vachanas developed during this time.
They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Channabasavanna and Siddharama are the best known among them.
In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (Mahakavya) in 18 cantos called Vikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poet Bilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI.
The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI’s accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.
Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani by king Someshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society.
This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc.
This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc.
Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman-Kabhyudaya.
The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people of Karnataka.
A Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara, in the court of Vikramaditya VI.
Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India.
Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments were Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara and Sangita Ratnakara.
Art:
The Chalukyas of Kalyani patronized fine arts.
An epigraph dated in AD 1045 refers to the construction of a Natakasala or theatre in the premises of a Jaina temple.
We have epigraphic references to a flutist, songsters, florists, drummers and dancers, being given grants for their maintenance.
Architecture, sculpture in stone and metal, and painting were promoted by the temples.
An inscription dated AD 1085 from Nagai refers to a great sculptor Nagoja, who is called Kandarana Vidyadhirajam, the master of the art of engraving and we have references to other sculptures and engravings.
Architecture:
Temples:
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. This style is sometimes called Karnata dravida. It is also sometimes called the “Gadagstyle” after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna River doab region of present-day Gadag district in Karnataka.
The dynasty’s temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka.
Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi.
The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture.
An inscription outside the temple calls it “Emperor of Temples” (devalaya chakravarti) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI.
The Kedareswara Temple at Balligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style.
The vimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.
To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of the lathe turned (tuned) pillars and use of Soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples.
They popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi.
The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was dravidian architecture.
Apart from temples, the dynasty’s architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi.
These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
Language:
The local language Kannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs.
Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are in Sanskrit language.
More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century. Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana).
This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (called Lingayatism) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas.
At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit.
Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses.
This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties.
Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular.
Some well-known works are Chandombudhi, a prosody, and Karnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written by Nagavarma I, a lexicon called Rannakanda by Ranna, a book on medicine called Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology called Jatakatilaka by Sridharacharya, a writing on erotics called Madanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia called Lokapakara by Chavundaraya II.
