Ancient Jain Sites

Udayagiri–Khandagiri Caves

• Location: Twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, near Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• General Features:
  • Total of 33 rock-cut caves spread across both hills.
  • Primarily single-storied, though some are double-storied.
  • Served as dwelling retreats for Jain monks (śramaṇas).
• Historical Patronage:
  • Caves were excavated under the patronage of King Kharavela and his successors.
  • Belong to the 2nd century BCE (Mahameghavahana dynasty).
• Notable Structures:
  • Ranigumpha:
    • Largest and most elaborate cave.
    • Double-storied with pillared verandahs, sculptural friezes, and chambers.
  • Other important caves: Hathigumpha, Ganeshagumpha, Vyāghragumpha.
• Hathigumpha Inscription:
  • Located at Udayagiri.
  • A 17-line inscription of King Kharavela.
  • Composed in Prakrit language and incised in Brahmi script.
  • Considered a major source of early Jain and Odisha history.
• Contents of the Inscription:
  • Details the military conquests of Kharavela.
  • Emphasizes his orientation toward Jainism.
  • Describes his construction works, including public infrastructure.
  • Shows his religious tolerance and patronage of multiple faiths.
  • Highlights his support for arts like music and dance.
  • Mentions his act of retrieving a Jina image, which:
    • Marks the earliest epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism.

Badami Caves

• Location: In Bagalkot district, Karnataka.
• Historical Significance:
  • Capital of the Early Chalukyas.
  • Founded in 540 AD by Pulakeshi I of the Chalukya dynasty.
  • Later destroyed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, who adopted the title Vatapikonda after conquering it.
• Architecture:
  • Famous for sandstone cave temples and early structural temples.
  • Represents early styles of southern Indian temple architecture.
• Rock-cut Cave Temples:
  • Dedicated to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism.
  • Notable deities and themes:
    • Shiva with Parvati
    • Vishnu in various forms
    • Jain Tirthankaras, including Adinatha
    • Lord Nataraja in dancing poses (108 Karanas).
  • Ceiling paintings with early mural art traditions.
• Important Temples:
  • Muktheeswara Temple
  • Melagutti Sivalaya
  • Bhutanatha group of temples
  • Mallikarjuna group of temples
• Inscriptions:
  • Oldest Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script dating to 543 CE (Pulakeshi I’s period).
  • One inscription near Bhutanatha Temple.
  • 12th-century inscriptions in the Jain rock-cut temple dedicated to Adinatha.

Aihole

• Location:
  • Situated in Bijapur district, Karnataka.
  • Lies east of Pattadakal, while Badami is to the west of both.
• Historical Importance:
  • First capital of the Western Chalukyas before it was shifted to Badami.
  • Major centre for the evolution of early Chalukyan architecture.
• Architectural Features:
  • Known for many stone temples dating from the 5th century CE.
  • Contains some of the earliest structural temples in South India.
  • Approximately 70 temples, among which four are especially important:
    • Ladh Khan Temple:
      • Flat-roofed structure with a pillared hall.
    • Durga Temple:
      • Semi-circular apse and chaitya-like structure resembling Buddhist Chaityas.
    • Huchimalligudi Temple
    • Jain Temple at Meguti
• Cave Temples:
  • Ravana Phadi Cave:
    • Rock-cut temple dedicated to Shiva with fine early carvings.
  • Jain Cave Temple
  • Buddhist Chaitya Cave:
    • Partly rock-cut structure showing Buddhist influence.
• Aihole Inscription:
  • Found in the Meguti Jain Temple.
  • Known as the Aihole Prasasti.
  • Composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II in 634 A.D.
  • Written in Sanskrit language and old Kannada script.
  • Records:
    • Detailed exploits of Pulakesin II.
    • His victory over Harshavardhana of Kanauj.
    • His conquests against various neighbouring kingdoms, including the Pallavas.

Pattadakal

• Location:
  • Situated on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, Karnataka.
• UNESCO World Heritage Site:
  • The Group of Monuments at Pattadakal has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Represents a harmonious blend of architectural styles and cultural traditions.
• Temples and Architectural Features:
  • Comprises nine Hindu temples and one Jain sanctuary.
  • Eight temples are dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • A ninth Shaivite sanctuary is known as the Papanatha Temple.
  • There is also a Jain Narayana Temple.
  • The temples exhibit a fusion of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) architectural styles.
• Notable Temples:
  • Virupaksha Temple:
    • Built around 740 CE.
    • Commissioned by Queen Lokamahadevi.
    • Constructed to commemorate her husband King Vikramaditya II’s victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
    • Considered the most outstanding architectural edifice of the complex.
• Artistic and Cultural Significance:
  • Temples reflect the Chalukyan style developed between the 6th to 8th century CE.
  • Iconographic friezes depict:
    • Vedic and Puranic themes.
    • Stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana.
    • Elements from other Indian texts such as the Panchatantra and Kiratarjuniya.

Ellora Caves

• Location:
  • Situated in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
• Chronology and Patronage:
  • Rock-cut caves carved from the 6th century CE onwards.
  • Built under the Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta dynasties.
• Religious and Cultural Diversity:
  • Houses Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monuments.
  • Showcases the religious harmony and architectural brilliance of early medieval India.
• Buddhist Caves:
  • Include Viharas (monastic halls) and one Chaitya-griha (prayer hall).
  • Reflect Mahayana influence and simple, yet elegant sculpture.
• Hindu Caves:
  • Kailasanatha Temple:
    • Commissioned by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (not Krishna III) in the 8th century CE.
    • Designed in Dravidian style of architecture.
    • Meant to resemble Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva.
    • It is:
      • Free-standing.
      • Multi-storeyed.
      • Entirely carved out of a single rock, making it the largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world.
    • Rich sculptural program includes:
      • Panels of Shiva, Ravana lifting Kailasa, and Nataraja.
  • Dashavatara Cave:
    • A monolithic mandapa (pillared hall).
    • Depicts ten avatars of Vishnu in sculptural panels.
• Jain Caves:
  • Feature Jain Digambara cave temples.
  • Jagannatha Sabha is the most notable among them.
    • Includes shrines, pillared halls, and elaborate carvings.
    • Built by the Rashtrakutas.
    • Inscriptions list names of monks and donors.
• Inscriptions:
  • Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga’s grant inscription found at Ellora.
  • Kailasa temple inscriptions commemorate royal patronage.
  • Jain caves contain inscriptions mentioning religious donors and monks.
• Paintings:
  • Traces of cave paintings are also found, especially in Buddhist and Jain caves.

Udaigiri Caves

• Location:
  • Situated near Vidisha, in Madhya Pradesh.
• Cave Composition:
  • Comprises rock-cut caves, mostly carved during the Gupta period.
  • Out of the total:
    • One cave is dedicated to Jainism.
    • Twenty-three caves are dedicated to Hinduism.
• Religious Iconography:
  • Rich in sculptural depictions of:
    • Vaishnavism: including the Varaha (boar) incarnation of Vishnu.
    • Shaivism.
    • Shaktism.
  • The Varaha relief sculpture:
    • One of the most celebrated Gupta period rock sculptures.
    • Depicts Vishnu as Varaha lifting Bhudevi (Earth goddess) from the cosmic ocean.
• Inscriptions:
  • Belong to the Gupta dynasty, particularly the reigns of:
    • Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).
    • Kumaragupta I.
  • The Jaina cave includes:
    • One of the oldest Jaina inscriptions, dated to 425 CE.
• Nearby Monument:
  • The Heliodoros Garuda Pillar at Besnagar:
    • Erected by Heliodoros, a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas.
    • Dedicated to Vasudeva (Krishna).
    • Located near Udayagiri.
    • Earliest epigraphic evidence of Bhagavata (Vaishnava) worship in India.

Vallabhi

• Location:
  • Situated in Bhavnagar district, Saurashtra region, Gujarat.
• Historical Importance:
  • Served as the capital of the Maitraka Dynasty from c. 480 to 775 CE.
  • Founded by Senapati Bhatarka, the founder of the Maitraka dynasty.
• Religious and Cultural Significance:
  • A renowned centre of learning and home to several Buddhist monasteries.
  • Attracted scholars and students from across India and abroad.
• Pilgrim Accounts:
  • Visited by the Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing in the 7th century CE.
  • Described as a prosperous city with numerous Buddhist viharas and educational institutions.
• Jain Connection:
  • Hosted the Second Jaina Council under Acharya Devardhigani Kshamashramana in the 6th century CE.
  • During this council, the Jaina scriptures (Agamas) were compiled and standardized, assuming their present form.

Varanasi/ Banaras/ Kasi

• In Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Related to Hinduim, Buddhism and Jainism.
• Varanasi:- Capital of Kashi Mahajanapada in 6th Century BC.
• Center of education for Hindus, Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Teaching of Vedas, the Upanishads etc. in the ashrams.
• Nearby Dear Park at Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon.
• Chinese Pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited and attested the city as a centre of religious and artistic activities.
• Parshvanath Jain temple located here.
• In medieval times, several Bhakti saints (Kabir, Ravidas, Tulsidas) were related to Varanasi.
• One of the 12 Jyotirlinga sites:- Kasi Vishwanath temple.
• Related to salvation of Hindus.
• Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music developed.

OR

Sarnath

• Located near Varanasi, U.P.
• In deer park of Sarnath, Buddha first taught the Dharma (Dhammachakkappavattana  Sutta) after attaining enlightenment.
• One of four most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites, the other three being Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini.
• Also the birthplace the eleventh Tirthankara of Jainism, and a temple dedicated to him.
• Chinese pilgrim Xuan  Zang  visited  and  found  monasteries  and monks studying the  Hinayana and mentions stupa built by Ashoka.
• Center for the arts, which reached its zenith during the Gupta period (Sarnath school).
• Rich in Buddhist antiquities.
  • Dhamek Stupa:
    • a solid cylinder of bricks and stone.
    • wall  covered  with  carved  figures  of  humans  and  birds and inscriptions in the Brahmi script.
    • An Ashoka pillar with an edict and lion capital stands near the Stupa.
• Beautiful sculptures found:
  • A colossal image of a Bodhisattava,
  • a number of images of Buddha and Buddhist deities,
  • Images of Hindu gods as Shiva and Brahma,
  • Lion capital on Ashokan pillar (official Emblem of India)
    • carved out of a single block of polished sandstone
    • mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels.
    • The wheel on the capital is the model for the one in the flag of India.
• On pillar, an inscription of one of the Edicts of Ashoka reads, “No one shall cause division in the order of monks”.

Sirpur

• In Mahasamund district, Chattisgarh.
• Hindu, Buddhist (Vaishnavism, Shaivism) and Jain monuments.
• It was considered as the ancient capital of South Koshal and was called at Shreepur.
• Hindu monuments:
  • Shiva, Vaishnava
  • Lakshmana temple:
    • Brick temple.
    • Most well preserved.
    • Built by Vasata in 7th century AD.
    • Dedicated to Lord Vishnu,
    • The plan of the temple consists of a garbagriha, antarala and a mandapa.
  • Other Hindu monuments include Rama temple, Gandheshwar temple etc.
• Buddhist monuments:
  • Viharas,
  • Buddha, Pdmapani, Avlokiteshwara statues etc.
  • Some syncretic finds of Hindi and Buddhist.
• Jain monuments:
  • Ruins of Jain basadi and monastery found.
  • Bronze image of Adinatha (first Tirthankara).

Sittanavasal Caves

• In Pudukkottai district, Tamilnadu.
• Meghalithic and Jain Cave site.
• Burials:
  • Stone circles,
  • Cist burials
  • urn burials,
• Pottery, glass manufacturing site, iron objects,
• Sittanavasal Cave is a Jain caves with painting and sculptures.
  • Temple-cave dated to Pallava King Mahendravarman I (580–630 AD).
  • Painting:
    • Mural painting
    • Fresco-secco technique
    • Painting depicts:
      • lotus pond with lotus flowers,
      • people collecting lotuses from the pond,
      • dancing figures,
      • fish, buffaloes, elephants etc.

Kanchipuram

• In Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu.
• Capital of Early Chola and Pallava.
• Centre of art and architecture and learning.
  • Kailasanathar Temple (built by Pallava King Rajasimha)
  • Vaikuntha Perumal Temple.
  • A religious centre education for Jainism and Buddhism.
  • Educational institutions called Ghatikas.
• Centre of the religious and literary activity of the Vaishnavites and Saivites Bhakti saints, Alvars and Nayanars.
• Known for hand woven silk sarees.

Shravanabelagola

• Shravanabelagola is located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in Karnataka.
• It has been a prominent centre for Jain art, architecture, religion and culture for over two millennia.
• Shravanabelagola has two hills, Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri. About two thousand years ago, Acharya Bhadrabahu (one of the earliest great Jain Acharyas) and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya are believed to have meditated there.
  • Chandragupta Maurya, the great emperor who ruled a large part of India, settled in this region. He is said to have died here in 298 BCE after he became a Jain monk and assumed an ascetic life style.
• Just opposite is the smaller Chandragiri hill where some Jain temples and tomb of Chandragupta Mourya, famous patron of Jainism can be seen.
• The smaller Chandragiri has some Jain temples and tomb of Chandragupta Maurya and memorials to numerous monks and Sravakas who have meditated there since the fifth century AD, including the last king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta.
• Monolith of Lord Gomateshwara:
  • The 58-feet (18 m) tall monolithic statue of Lord Gomateshwara, (a Jain saint and the son of Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of Jainism) is located  nestled by the Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri Hills.
  • Carved of a single block of granite.
  • It is considered to be the one of the world’s largest monolithic statue. 
  • It was built around 983 CE during the Western Ganga dynasty by the minister and commander Chavundaraya.
  • The Mahamastakabisheka festival, an elaborate ritual (Gommateshwara statue is anointed with milk, saffron, ghee, sugarcane juice, etc. from the top of the statue), held here once every 12 years, attracts devotees from all over the world. when the
• Inscriptions:
  • More than 800 inscriptions have been found at Shravanabelagola, dating to various times from 600 AD to 1830 AD.
  • A large number of these are found in the Chandragiri and the rest can be seen in the Vindhyagiri Hill and the town.
  • These inscriptions include texts in the Kannada, Prakrit.
  • Some of these inscriptions mention the rise and growth in power of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysala Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and the Wodeyar dynasty.
• Gommateshwara statue, Akkana Basadi, Chandragupta basadi, Chamundaraya Basadi, Parshvanath Basadi and inscriptions of Shravanabelagola group of monuments are listed as Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.

Mount Abu

• In Sirohi district, Rajasthan.
• Hill station in the Aravalli Range
• Home to several Hindu and Jain temples.
• Jain temples:
  • Dilwara Temples
    • carved of white marble built between the 11th and 13th centuries CE,
  • Vimal Vasahi temple
    • oldest, built in 1021 CE by Vimal Shah and dedicated to the first of the Jain Tirthankaras).
• Hindu temples:
  • Adhar Devi Temple carved out of solid rock;
  • Shri Raghunathji Temple,
  • Achaleshwar Mahadeva temple,
  • Gaumukh temple.

Deogarh

• In Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Dashavatara Temple:
  • Gupta period temple
  • dedicated to Lord Vishnu,
  • one of the earliest known Panchyatana temples
  • Nagara style and beginning of the Shikhara type of temples.
  • carved figurines of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on the doorway to the sanctum sanctorum,
  • Anantshayi Vishnu reclining on a serpent.
  • Sculpture on the Dasawatara temple show classical Gupta style.
• The fort on the hill of Deogarh is dominated by a cluster of Jain temples.

Khajuraho

• In Chhatarpur district, Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh.
• The Khajuraho Group of Monuments:
  • A group of Hindu and Jain temples.
  • Famous temples:
    • Kandariya Mahadeva Temple of Lord Shiva (most elaborate)
    • Lakshman Temple and
    • Chaturbhuja Temple of Lord Vishnu,
    • Chaunsath Yoginis temple
    • Chitragupta Temple of Sun god,
    • Adinatha Jain Temple etc.
  • UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
  • Constructed by Chandella rulers between 10th and 12th century.
  • Nagara style of architecture.
• Features:
  • Use of sandstone in early period. Later granite used.
  • No enclosure-wall
  • Erected on a high-platform-terrace (jagati) with bands of sculptures.
  • Nagara shikharas composed of several miniature shikharas, called the Urisingas.
  • The crowning element- Amalakas.
  • Panchayatana style. For e.g. Lakshmana temple.
  • Temple plan in axis- east to west.
  • Temple elements:
    • ‘mukha-mandapa’,
    • ‘mandapa’,
    • ‘antarala’ and
    • ‘garbha-griha’.
• Pradakshina with carvings.
• Sikhara is divided into seven segments.
• About 10% of the carvings contain sexual themes and rest of the sculptures depict the everyday life of the common persons such as women putting on makeup, playing games, dancing, knotting and unknotting their girdles, and others themes such as musicians, potters, farmers etc.
• Large scale depiction of horsemen (cavalry)- disappearance of chariot.

Mathura

• In Mathura district, UP.
• Centre of craft and trade.
  • Textile
  • Junction of trade route: Uttarpatha and dakshinapatha.
• Religious centre:
  • Buddhism,
  • Jainism, and
  • early Hinduism.
• Southern capital of the Kushana/
• Mathura School of Arts under the patronage of the Kushanas.
• BRW, PGW, NBPW
• At Sonkh, near Mathura, PGW, BRW and grey ware found.
• Post-holes and a double ditch.
• Beginnings of urbanization during Kushana period.
• NBPW: Coins came and specialized crafts such as the manufacture of terracotta figurines, copper and iron working, and bead making.

Shravasti

• Location:
  • Situated in Shravasti district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Historical Significance:
  • Was the capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada during the 6th century BCE.
  • Located strategically on the northern trade routes.
• Religious Importance:
  • Important centre for both Buddhists and Jainas.
  • Buddhism:
    • Associated with the life of Gautama Buddha.
    • Numerous stupas, viharas, and Buddhist idols have been discovered.
  • Jainism:
    • Birthplace of Tirthankara Sambhavanatha, the 3rd Tirthankara.
• Archaeological Discoveries:
  • PGW and NBPW cultural phases identified.
  • Structural remains at PGW levels include:
    • Wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
  • Excavations unearthed ancient idols, inscriptions, and other architectural remains.
• Chinese Pilgrim Account:
  • Visited by Xuanzang in the 7th century CE, who found the city in ruins but noted its religious legacy.

Patlaliputra

• In Bihar, Patna district.
• Ancient capital of the Magadha until the 5^th century BC when Ajatashatru (and finally Udayin) moved the capital to Pataliputra (Situated at the confluence of the Ganges, Gandhaka and Son rivers, forming a “jaldurga”).
• Its position helped it dominate the riverine trade of the Indo-Gangetic plains during Magadha period.
• Centre of trade and commerce and attracted merchants and intellectuals.
• Excavations reveal large fortification walls, including wooden trusses in Kumharar (Patna).
• Capital of the Maurya:
  • Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, resided there and left a detailed account in Indica.
  • Flourishing Buddhist and Jain centre.
• Third Buddhist council in the reign of Ashoka and first Jain council were held here.
• Kamaldah Jain temple is the oldest Jain temple located in Patna.
  • It is believed to built on the site where Jain acharya Sthulabhadra (297—198 BCE) spent his last days.
• Capital  Nandas, Mauryans, Sungas, Guptas and Palas.
• The city was largely in ruins when visited by Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang in 7^th century.
• Sher Shah made Pataliputra his capital and changed the name to Patna.

Vaishali

• In Bihar.
• Capital city of the Licchavi, considered one of the first example of a republic, in the Vrijji Confederacy Mahajanapada.
• Important place for Jain and Buddhist religions.
• Here in 599 BCE the 24^th Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira was born and brought up in Kundagrama in Vaisali republic.
• During Bimbisara, Gautama Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 BCE.
• In 383 BCE the Second Buddhist council was convened here by King Kalasoka.
• An Ashokan Pillar is found here which is topped by a single lion.
• Mentioned by Faxian (4th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE).
• Also renowned as the land of Amrapali, the great Indian courtesan, who appears in many folktales, as well as in Buddhist literature who was said to become a disciple of Buddha.

Rajgir / Rajagriha

• In Nalanda district, Bihar.
• Ancient capital of the Magadha until the 5^th century BC when Ajatashatru (and finally Udayin) moved the capital to Pataliputra.
• It was surrounded by five hills which made it impregnable.
• Also mentioned in Buddhist and Jain scriptures and related to the life of both Buddha and Mahavir.
• Gautama Buddha spent several months meditating, and preaching in Rajagriha.
• It was the venue of the first Buddhist council.
• Chinese Buddhist pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang mention Rajagriha.

Pratishthana (Paithan)

• In Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
• Capital of the Satavahanas (2^nd century BC to 2^nd century AD).
• Mentioned in 1^st century AD Greek book, Periplus of Erythrian Sea and in Ashokan Rock Edict.
• Emporium of trade.
• Home of saint Eknath.
• Famous today for Paithani silk saris.
• Paithan is a well known ancient Digambar Jain atishay kshetra, meaning a Pilgrimage place of miracles.
  • This temple is dedicated to Munisuvrata, the 20th Jain Tirthanakar.

Saketa/ Ayoddhya

• On the right bank of the river Sarayu in Faizabad district of UP.
• Southern capital of Mahajanpada Kosala. Its other capital was at Savatthi (Sravasti).
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha.
• Birthplace first and fourth Jaina tirthankara.
• A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan.
• Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala.
• In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom.
• Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Prasenajit. He was a follower of Buddha.
• NBPW phase:
  • Houses made of burnt brick and terracotta ring wells.
  • A grey terracotta figure of a Jaina saint, assigned to the 4th/3rd century BCE, is among the earliest Jaina images found so far.
• Later period:
  • punch-marked coins,
  • uninscribed cast coins,
  • inscribed copper coins,
  • a number of terracotta sealings.
  • Rouletted ware suggests trade links with eastern India, where this type of pottery occurs in large quantities.
• In mythology, Ayodhya is related to Lord Rama.

Hastinapur

• In Meerut district, UP.
• Capital of Kuru.
• Jaina tradition:
  • Place where Rishabha, the first tirthankara, lived.
  • Mahavira visited.
• OCP followed by PGW.
• Habitation:
  • Wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
  • Unbaked bricks.
• Chert and jasper weights found.
• Horse bones found.
• 2nd century BCE–3rd century CE: (Urbanisation)
  • Pottery:
    • Wheel-turned red ware.
    • Designs such as fish, leaves, flowers, svastikas, triratnas, loops, circles, and other geometric patterns.
  • Habitation:
    • Planed settlement.
    • Burnt brick, ring well found.
  • Artefacts:
    • Objects: iron, copper, ivory, terracotta figurines.
    • rings and beads
    • potsherds and seal
    • Coins– Yaudheyas and Kushana
  • Terracotta:
    • Humped bull
    • torso of the bodhisattva Maitreya

Besnagar

• Vidisha is an ancient city, situated near Bhopal, Madhyapradesh.
• The city, originally called Besnagar and Bhilsa was capital of the Sunga dynasty.
• Besnagar figures significantly in Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical literature.
• Heliodorus pillar/ Besnagar pillar/ Garuda pillar:
  • Monolithic free standing stone column
  • Erected around 113 BCE by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king to the court of the Shunga king.
  • Surmounted by a sculpture of Garuda.
  • Inscription states that it was raised in honour of god Vasudeva by Heliodorous.
• The Udayagiri Caves are situated nearby.
• Also nearby Vidisha is the ancient Buddhist complex of Sanchi.

Pawapuri

• Pawapuri is a holy site for Jains located in the Nalanda district of Bihar.
• It is the place of Mahavira’s nirvana and a pilgrimage site for Jains.
•  Jal Mandir:
  • It marks the spot where Lord Mahavira was cremated.
  • The main deity of the beautiful temple is a very old “Charan Paduka” of Lord Mahavira.
  • It is believed that this temple was built by King Nandivardhan, elder brother of Lord Mahavira.

OR

Kundalpur

• Kundalpur is a village in Nalanda district of Bihar located just 1.6 km from the ruins of Nalanda.
• The Digambar sect of Jains believes that the 24th and the last Tirthankar, Lord Mahavir, was born here.
• There are beautiful temples dedicated to Mahavira, Rishabhdev and Gautam Swami located here along with many other ancient temples.
• The present Jain temple was however was recently built. The images of 72 Jinas are displayed for offerings in a separate building.

Parasnath

• Parasnath is a mountain peak in the Parasnath Range. It is located towards the eastern end of the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the Giridih district of Jharkhand.
• The hill is named after Lord Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara.
• Jains call it Sammed Sikhar.
• Out of 24 Tirthankaras of Jains, 20 got nirvana on Parshvnatha Hills.
• On the mountain, there are the Shikharji Jain temples, an important tirthakshetra or Jain pilgrimage site.

Girnar

• In Junagarh district, Gujarat.
• Girnar Hill near Junagadh.
• Many Jain and Hindu temples are located in Girnar.
• The group of temples of Jainism are situated on the Mount Girnar
  • These temples are sacred to both Digambara and the Svetambara.
  • Neminath also called Arishtanemi, the 22nd Tirthankara attained salvation here.
  • The Neminath temple is the largest temple of the group.
• Major rock edicts of Ashoka:
  • On black granite
  • in Brahmi script
• On the same rock there are inscriptions in Sanskrit added around 150 CE by Rudradaman I, the Saka ruler of Malwa, a member of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty:
  • earliest Sanskrit inscription
  • mentions renovation of Sudarshana Lake which was originally built by Pusyagupta the provincial governor of Chandragupta.
• Another inscription dates from about 450 CE and refers to Skandagupta.

Palitana

• Located in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat and a major pilgrimage centre for Jains.
• Adinatha, the first of the Jain tirthankaras, is said to have meditated on the Shatrunjaya hill, where the Palitana temples were later constructed.
• It is one of the most sacred sites of Svetambara tradition within Jainism.
• Jains believe that 23 of 24 Jain Tirthankaras, except Neminatha, sanctified the Palitana hill by their visits.
• There are more than 3000 temples located on the Shatrunjaya hills, exquisitely carved in marble bulit by Jains from the 11th century onwards.
  • The main temple on top of the hill, is dedicated to the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).