Located in the twin hills of Barabar and Nagarjuni.
Historical Context:
Oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, dating to the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE).
Patronage under Emperor Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha Maurya.
Religious Associations:
Dedicated primarily to Ajivika sect; some also used by Buddhist monks.
Brahmi inscriptions inside caves mention royal donations and religious affiliations.
Architectural Features:
Functioned as residences (viharas) and assembly halls (chaityas) for monks.
Each cave typically consists of two chambers, carved out of solid granite.
Highly polished interiors, a unique feature of Mauryan craftsmanship.
Show signs of early architectural experimentation in rock-cut design.
Notable Caves:
Lomas Rishi Cave:
Most famous among Barabar caves.
Arched facade with decorative chaitya window—imitates wooden architecture.
Influenced later Buddhist cave architecture (e.g., Ajanta, Karle).
Sudama Cave:
Earliest cave, dedicated to Ajivikas by Ashoka in 257 BCE.
Highly symmetrical with echo-inducing acoustics.
Karan Chaupar Cave
Plain but polished interior, with Ashokan inscription.
Vishvakarma Cave
Contains rough finish, possibly unfinished.
Significance:
Represents the transition from wooden to stone architecture.
Reflects Mauryan religious tolerance (Ajivika, Buddhist, Jain traditions).
Acts as a precursor to later rock-cut cave traditions of India (Ajanta, Ellora, etc.).
Udayagiri–Khandagiri Caves
Location:
Located in Khurda district, Odisha, near Bhubaneswar.
Situated along the ancient Daya River trade and pilgrimage routes.
Twin hill formations: Udayagiri (Sunrise Hill) and Khandagiri (Broken Hill).
Historical Context and Patronage:
Excavated primarily during the 1st century BCE under King Kharavela of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.
Patronage extended by Kharavela and his successors, mainly for Jain monastic use.
Designed as dwelling retreats (viharas) for Digambara Jain monks.
Architectural Features:
Total of 33 rock-cut caves:
Udayagiri – 18 caves
Khandagiri – 15 caves
Mostly single-storied, but a few like Rani Gumpha are double-storied.
Key elements:
Pillared verandahs, carved facades, intricate friezes, and relief sculptures.
Decorated with themes of royalty, asceticism, and daily life.
Important Caves:
Rani Gumpha (Queen’s Cave):
Largest and most elaborate cave.
Double-storied with decorative carvings and sculptures.
Friezes depict court scenes, animals, dancers, and musical performances.
Hathi Gumpha (Elephant Cave):
Contains the famous 17-line inscription of King Kharavela.
Located on Udayagiri Hill.
Inscribed in Prakrit language using Brahmi script.
📜 Hathigumpha Inscription (2nd century BCE):
A major historical and epigraphic source for early Indian polity.
Records:
Military campaigns of Kharavela.
His religious patronage to Jainism.
Construction activities, including irrigation, cave excavation, and restoration.
Support to music, dance, and fine arts.
Notably mentions the retrieval of a stolen Jina image, making it the earliest epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism.
Reference to conflicts with Satavahanas and other southern powers.
🪔 Religious and Cultural Significance:
Stronghold of early Jain monasticism, especially Digambara sect.
Highlights the growth of Jain institutional life in eastern India.
Reflects syncretic culture, as secular and religious imagery coexist.
Pilgrimage centre for Jains, continuing into the present.
🏛️ Legacy and Preservation:
Represents a transitional phase in Indian rock-cut architecture—from natural caves to more structured temple-like forms.
A protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India.
An important site for Jain pilgrims, archaeologists, and historians alike.
Jogimara Caves
Location
Situated in Surguja district, Chhattisgarh
Located on the Ramgarh hills, near the origin of the Rihand River (a tributary of the Son)
Chronology and Patronage
Dates to around the 2nd century BCE
Associated with early Buddhist or possibly pre-Buddhist traditions
Religious affiliation is debated due to absence of distinct iconography
Artistic Significance
Contains some of the earliest mural paintings in India
Executed with natural pigments on lime-plastered surfaces
Themes include:
Dancers
Floral motifs
Geometric patterns
Considered secular art, rather than religious
Cultural and Literary Value
Bears a love inscription in early Brahmi script
One of the oldest romantic inscriptions in India
Mentions a woman named Devadasi Sutnuka
Provides evidence of early performing arts culture
Archaeological Value
Along with Sita Bengra Cave, helps understand:
Early cave art
Non-sectarian use of rock shelters
Literary expression in early historic India
Guntupalli Caves
Location
Located in West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh.
Situated near Konduru village, close to Eluru.
Overlooks the Gundlakamma valley, offering strategic and scenic placement.
Lies along ancient trade and pilgrimage routes of the Krishna–Godavari basin.
Chronology and Patronage
Dated between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE.
Flourished during the Satavahana period.
Represents the early phase of Buddhism in the Andhra region.
Patronised by early rulers and merchant communities involved in inland and coastal trade.
Architectural Features
Represents a unique blend of rock-cut and structural architecture.
Rock-Cut Components
Two Buddhist caves carved into the rock.
A chaitya-griha (prayer hall) with a horseshoe-shaped entrance, characteristic of early Buddhist cave architecture.
Several rock-cut cells used as viharas (monk residences).
Structural Components
A large brick-built stupa at the site, surrounded by several smaller votive stupas.
Remains of pillars, railings, and sculpted panels, indicating structural elaboration.
Transitional features showing a move from rock architecture to brick-and-mortar construction.
Religious and Cultural Significance
A prominent Buddhist monastic centre in early historic Andhra.
Supported the growth of both Hinayana (Theravada) and later Mahayana traditions.
Functioned as a place for religious learning, meditation, and ritual activities.
Part of the broader Buddhist network linking Andhra to Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, and regions across Southeast Asia.
Archaeological Importance
Provides insight into:
The early evolution of Buddhist architecture in South India.
The regional adaptation of Buddhist cave forms.
The transition from rock-cut sanctuaries to structural monastic complexes.
Among the earliest examples of Buddhist cave architecture in peninsular India.
Conservation and Legacy
Protected site under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Although less popular than Amaravati or Nagarjunakonda, it is equally valuable for:
Understanding early Buddhism in the Deccan.
Tracing architectural and religious developments in ancient Andhra.
Undavalli Caves
Location
Situated in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh
Located on the banks of the Krishna River, near Amaravati
Chronology and Patronage
Date to the 4th–5th century CE
Initially carved under the Vakatakas or early Vishnukundins
Later patronized by Chalukyan rulers
Architecture shows transition from Buddhist to Hindu iconography
Religious Affiliation
Originally used by Buddhist monks as monastic shelters
Later associated with Vaishnavism
Reflects the fluid religious landscape of the time
Architectural Features
Four-storeyed cave complex carved into sandstone hillside
Main cave features a massive reclining image of Lord Vishnu carved from a single block of stone
Shrines dedicated to:
Trimurti deities (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva)
Bodhisattvas
Reflects multi-sectarian occupation
Cultural and Artistic Significance
Shows Gupta-era influence in sculptural style
Notable for:
Expressive figures
Ornamentation of deities
Pillared halls, intricate reliefs, and rock-cut shrines
Demonstrates the evolution of South Indian cave architecture
Badami Caves
Location
Situated in Bagalkot district, Karnataka
Located near Agastya Lake and surrounded by sandstone hills
Historical Significance
Capital of the Early Chalukyas from the 6th to 8th century CE
Founded in 540 CE by Pulakeshi I of the Chalukya dynasty
Later attacked and partially destroyed by Pallava ruler Narasimhavarma I, who assumed the title “Vatapikonda”
Architectural Features
Blend of rock-cut and structural temple styles
Marks early phase of southern Indian temple architecture
Rock-Cut Cave Temples
Four major cave temples carved into sandstone cliffs
Dedicated to Hindu deities (Shiva and Vishnu) and Jain Tirthankaras
Notable figures:
Shiva with Parvati
Vishnu in various avatars
Jain Tirthankara Adinatha
Nataraja in dynamic dancing poses
Structural Temples
Muktheeswara Temple
Melagutti Sivalaya
Bhutanatha group of temples
Mallikarjuna group of temples
Decorative Elements
Rich ceiling paintings in cave temples
Intricate carvings on pillars and doorways
Inscriptions
First Sanskrit inscription in old Kannada script dated to 543 CE during Pulakeshi I’s reign
Inscriptions near Bhutanatha temple
12th-century inscriptions in Jain rock-cut temple dedicated to Adinatha
Religious and Cultural Significance
Important site for Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism
Reflects religious harmony and patronage of multiple sects
Served as a hub of cultural, political, and religious activity in the Deccan
Mahabalipuram Caves
Location
Situated in Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu
Located along the Bay of Bengal coast
Historical Significance
Developed under the Pallava rulers:
Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla)
Rajasimhavarman
Built during the 7th century CE
Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Architectural and Artistic Features
A unique combination of:
Rock-cut cave temples
Monolithic rathas (chariot temples)
Sculpted relief panels
Structural temples
Descent of the Ganges / Arjuna’s Penance
Giant open-air rock relief
Depicts either the descent of River Ganga or the penance of Arjuna
A masterpiece of narrative relief sculpture
Pancha Rathas (Five Rathas)
Group of five monolithic temples carved from single granite blocks
Named after the Pandava brothers from the Mahabharata
Each ratha represents a different architectural style and deity
Highlights experimentations in temple design by the Pallavas
Shore Temple
A structural temple (not rock-cut) facing Bay of Bengal
Entrance from the western side, away from the sea
Represents the evolution from rock-cut to structural Dravida temples
Composed of multiple shrines, mainly dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu
Maritime and Cultural Importance
Served as an important port city of the Pallavas
Used for launching trade and diplomatic missions to:
Sri Lanka
Southeast Asia
Reflects cultural interaction between India and maritime nations
Edakkal Rock Shelter Caves and Painting
Location
Situated in Wayanad district, Kerala
Comprises two natural rock shelters on Ambukuthi Hills
Chronology and Cultural Phases
Associated with Mesolithic and Neolithic human activity
Evidence of continued use across prehistoric to early historic periods
Archaeological Significance
Pictorial engravings and carvings suggest:
Presence of a prehistoric settlement
Use of stone tools, hunting practices, and domestic scenes
Human and animal figures, geometric motifs, and symbols
Carvings depict daily life, rituals, and early artistic expression
Epigraphic and Scriptural Findings
Inscriptions found in Tamil-Brahmi script
Suggests interaction with or presence of early Dravidian cultures
Indicates Edakkal’s use during early historic period as well
Unique Features
One of the few sites in South India with clear evidence of pre-historic rock art
A rare combination of natural rock formation and cultural imprints
Sittanavasal Caves
Location
Located in Pudukkottai district, Tamil Nadu
Cultural and Historical Background
Site includes both Megalithic burials and Jain cave heritage
Caves date to the reign of Pallava King Mahendravarman I (580–630 CE)
Known as an important Jain centre in early medieval Tamil region
Burial Evidence
Various types of megalithic burials found nearby:
Stone circles
Cist burials
Urn burials
Associated findings include:
Pottery
Iron tools
Glass manufacturing debris
Sittanavasal Cave Temple
A rock-cut Jain temple-cave known for both sculpture and paintings
Reflects early Tamil Jainism and Pallava art
Important for the study of Jain monastic life and cave architecture
Painting Features
Mural paintings executed in fresco-secco technique
Depictions include:
Lotus pond with blooming lotus flowers
People collecting lotuses
Dancing figures
Animals such as fish, buffaloes, and elephants
Paintings reflect themes of nature, devotion, and daily life
Early example of secular and religious art in Tamil Nadu
Bedse Caves (Bhaja Cave is also nearby)
Location
Situated in Pune district, Maharashtra
Located near the other early Buddhist cave sites of Karla and Bhaja, forming a notable trio of Buddhist caves
Historical Background
Dates back to the 2nd century BCE
Associated with the Hinayana phase of Buddhism
Excavated during the Satavahana period
Main Structures
Comprises two primary caves:
Chaitya (prayer hall)
Contains a stone stupa at its centre
Features horseshoe-shaped arch and pillared facade
Vihara (monastic dwelling)
Includes cells for monks and an inner hall
Noted for its simplicity, symmetry, and early rock-cut architectural style
Artistic Features
Decorative pillars with elaborate capitals
Reliefs depicting Buddhist motifs, animals, and floral patterns
Less ornate compared to Karla or Bhaja but displays refined proportions and elegance
Contextual Significance
Along with Karla and Bhaja, Bedse Caves reflect the early monastic Buddhist tradition in western India
Illustrates the spread of Buddhism along trade routes passing through the Western Ghats
Karla Caves
Location
Situated near Lonavala, Maharashtra
Located close to Bhaja and Bedse Caves, forming a cluster of early Buddhist cave sites in the Western Ghats
Positioned on an ancient trade route, facilitating cultural exchange and patronage
Chronology
Developed in two main phases:
1st phase: 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE
2nd phase: 5th century CE to 10th century CE
Originally associated with the Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism
Later saw Hindu influence during the post-Gupta period
Architectural Features
Chaitya (Prayer Hall):
One of the largest rock-cut chaityas in India
Features a stupa at the rear and a vaulted roof with wooden ribs (some original teakwood still intact)
Arched entrance flanked by pillared verandah
Viharas (Monasteries):
Residential cells for monks
Included communal halls and smaller individual rooms
Sculptural and Artistic Features
Rich reliefs and carvings including:
Human figures, both donors and devotees
Animal motifs such as lions and elephants
Decorative columns with elaborate capitals and inscriptions
Ashokan pillar (broken and partially lost) located at the entrance, indicating early Mauryan patronage
Religious and Cultural Significance
Early centre of Hinayana Buddhism, later associated with Mahayana and Hinduism
Important site reflecting early Buddhist rock-cut architecture and its evolution
Close to Bhaja and Bedse, marking the region as a hub of ancient Buddhist monasticism in western India
Ellora Caves
Location
Located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra
Lies along the ancient trade route between the Deccan and western India
Chronology and Patronage
Rock-cut caves constructed from the 6th century CE onward
Patronised by Kalachuris, Chalukyas, and mainly the Rashtrakutas
Religious Diversity
Represents Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain traditions in a single complex
Showcases religious tolerance and syncretism
Buddhist Caves (Caves 1–12)
Viharas (monasteries) with large pillared halls and cells
One chaitya-griha (prayer hall) with a stupa
Depictions of Buddha in teaching and meditative poses
Hindu Caves (Caves 13–29)
Built mostly by the Rashtrakutas
Kailasanatha Temple (Cave 16):
Dedicated to Lord Shiva
Commissioned by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III in the 8th century CE
Dravidian architectural style
Meant to resemble Mount Kailash
Entirely carved from a single rock
Multi-storeyed, free-standing temple with intricate pillars, sculptures, and halls
Dashavatara Cave:
Features a monolithic mandapa
Includes sculptural panels of the ten avatars of Vishnu
Jain Caves (Caves 30–34)
Excavated by Digambara Jains during the Rashtrakuta rule
Jagannatha Sabha:
Complex of Jain cave temples
Carved out in the 9th century CE
Features pillared halls, idols of Tirthankaras, and ornate ceilings
Sculptural and Artistic Features
Richly carved pillars, reliefs, mandapas, and sculptural panels
Themes include Shaivite, Vaishnavite, Buddhist, and Jain iconography
Cave paintings survive in fragmentary form, showing floral and divine motifs
Inscriptions
Grant inscription of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga
Inscriptions inside Kailasa Temple attest to its construction
Jain caves have records of monks and donors carved into the rock
Ajanta Caves
Location
Situated in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra
Chronology and Patronage
Dated from 2nd century BCE to 7th century CE
Built in two main phases:
Satavahana phase (2nd century BCE) – Hinayana tradition
Vakataka phase (5th century CE) under Harishena – Mahayana tradition
Religious Affiliation
Entirely Buddhist cave complex
Transition evident from Hinayana (non-iconic worship) to Mahayana (iconic worship)
UNESCO Recognition
Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang in the 7th century CE
Architectural Features
Comprises chaityas (prayer halls) and viharas (monasteries)
Early viharas:
Plain, functional, and devoid of Buddha images
Later viharas:
Featured central halls, cells, and rear shrines with Buddha statues
Reflect shift from aniconic to iconic worship in Mahayana Buddhism
Art and Paintings
Known for mural paintings and frescoes
Subjects include:
Jataka tales (previous lives of Buddha)
Scenes from Buddha’s life and courtly life
Use of multiple natural colors with excellent preservation of expressions and movement
Legacy
Represents the pinnacle of ancient Indian art
Major source for studying Buddhist iconography, narrative art, and monastic life in ancient India
Bagh Caves
Location
Located in Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh
Situated north-west of Ajanta Caves
Chronology and Patronage
Belong to Buddhist tradition
A copper plate inscription of Maharaja Subandhu mentions a donation for repair of the vihara
Religious Affiliation
Buddhist rock-cut caves used as viharas (monasteries)
Architectural Features
Architecturally similar to Ajanta caves
All caves follow a quadrangular vihara plan
Each vihara contains a rear chamber that functions as a chaitya (prayer hall)
Paintings and Art
Known for mural paintings on walls, pillars, and ceilings
Paintings depict Buddhist themes and Jataka tales
Style shows influence of Gupta-era classical painting tradition
Legacy
Although many paintings have deteriorated, Bagh Caves are valuable for understanding Buddhist monastic life and Gupta-period art
Pandavleni Caves (Nasik Caves)
Location
Situated in Nashik district, Maharashtra
Chronology and Patronage
Consist of 24 caves carved between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE
Mainly carved and donated during the reign of the Satavahanas
Other contributors included local rulers, merchants, and farmers
Religious Affiliation
A Buddhist cave site
Contains Chaityas (prayer halls) and Viharas (monastic residences)
Architectural and Artistic Features
Caves are interconnected with stone-cut ladders
Carved images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and donors such as kings and commoners
Rich sculptural panels with ornate pillars and inscriptions
Engineering and Water Management
Known for an excellent ancient water management system
Includes stone-cut water tanks for harvesting and storing rainwater
Legacy
Pandavleni stands as a remarkable site for studying early Buddhist architecture and community patronage in Western India
The site reflects a blend of religious, social, and engineering accomplishments during the Satavahana era
Kanheri Caves
Location
Situated near Mumbai, Maharashtra
Chronology and Patronage
Developed between the 1st century BCE to 10th century CE
Associated with Buddhist monastic traditions
Patronized by Satavahanas, Western Kshatrapas, and local traders
Religious Affiliation
Strong Buddhist influence
Functioned as a monastic complex, educational and meditation centre
Architectural Features
Early caves are plain and undecorated
Structures include:
Stone plinths for monk’s bedding
Viharas (residences)
Chaityas (prayer halls)
Stupas, used as Buddhist shrines
Stone pillars with inscriptions
Carved Buddhist sculptures, most notably of Avalokiteshwara
Inscriptions and Art
Inscriptions in Brahmi script
One inscription mentions the marriage of Satavahana ruler Vashishtiputra Satakarni with the daughter of Rudradaman I
Some caves contain Buddhist paintings, though fewer than Ajanta
Economic and Trade Connections
Strategically located near ancient trade routes
Likely served as a resting and religious stop for traders and pilgrims traveling the Western Ghats
Elephanta Caves
Location
Situated on a small island near Mumbai, Maharashtra
Known in ancient times as Gharapuri (“the city of caves”)
Chronology and Patronage
Developed mainly during the 7th and 8th centuries CE
Chalukyas and especially the Rashtrakutas were the chief patrons
Few Kshatrapa coins (4th century AD) found, indicating earlier occupation
In 1534, the Gujarat Sultanate surrendered the island to the Portuguese, who renamed it “Elephanta” after a massive black stone elephant statue they found there
Cave Grouping and Composition
Two groups of caves:
Five Hindu caves
Two Buddhist caves
Religious Significance
Hindu caves are dedicated to Lord Shiva
Buddhist caves likely used for meditation or monastic residence
Architectural and Artistic Features
Carved out of basalt rock
Key sculptures in the main cave (Cave 1):
Trimurti of Elephanta: a grand 20-foot sculpture showing three aspects of Shiva – Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer
Nataraja (cosmic dancer)
Ardhanarishvara (half-male, half-female form of Shiva and Parvati)
No inscriptions have been found at the site
Adamgarh Rock Shelter Caves and Painting
Location
Situated in Hoshangabad district, Madhya Pradesh
Archaeological Significance
Known for prehistoric rock shelters and cave paintings
Chronology
Belongs to the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods
Findings
Stone tools:
Includes Palaeolithic and Mesolithic tools
Abundance of microliths, especially geometric microliths like triangles and trapezes
Animal bones:
Remains of both wild and domesticated animals found
Pottery:
Microlithic level pottery discovered, indicating early sedentary life
Bhimbetka Rock Shelter Caves and Painting
Location
Situated in Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh
Chronology
Belongs to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods
Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Archaeological Features
Rock shelters used by early humans for dwelling
Floors paved with flat stone slabs discovered
No animal bones found so far
Stone Tools
Palaeolithic tools:
Made from quartzite and sandstone
Generally of larger size
Mesolithic tools:
Mostly made of chalcedony
Typically smaller in size
Rock Paintings
Known as a natural art gallery
Paintings span multiple periods, especially Paleolithic to Mesolithic
Common themes include:
Hunting scenes involving groups of men
Dancing figures
Children playing, women working
Signs of proto-family structures and early social life
Udayagiri Caves
Location
Situated near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh
Religious Affiliation
24 rock-cut caves
23 dedicated to Hinduism
1 dedicated to Jainism
Rich iconography related to:
Vaishnavism
Shaivism
Shaktism
Sculptural Highlights
Famous relief of Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) incarnation
Depicts Varaha lifting Bhudevi (Earth goddess) from the cosmic ocean
Considered one of the earliest and finest examples of Gupta art
Inscriptions
Associated with the Gupta dynasty
Notable inscriptions from the reigns of Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I
Jaina cave inscription dated to 425 CE
One of the oldest known Jain inscriptions
Nearby Monument
Heliodorus Garuda Pillar (dedicated to Vasudeva Krishna)
Located at Besnagar, near Udayagiri
Erected by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of Antialkidas, Indo-Greek king
Lakhudiyar
Location
Situated on the banks of the river Suyal in the Kumaon hills, Uttarakhand
The name Lakhudiyar means “one lakh caves“
Type of Site
A pre-historic rock painting site
Contains rock shelters with ancient art and pictographs
Paintings
Can be categorized into three types:
Human figures
Animal motifs
Geometric patterns
Human Depictions
Represented in stick-like form
A notable motif: hand-linked dancing human figures
